Error detection in additive manufacturing processes

ABSTRACT

The present disclosure relates to the prediction of part and material quality of Additive Manufacturing (AM) processes using layer based images. Described herein are methods and systems for detection of errors in parts built by AM processes such as Selective Laser Melting (SLM). The detection comprises analysis of optical images to identify errors which appear in layers during the AM build process. Errors include but are not limited to warpage of parts and dross formation of overhang surfaces.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent No.62/255,943, filed Nov. 16, 2015. The content of the provisionalapplication is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention

The present disclosure relates to Additive Manufacturing (AM) processes.More particularly, the present disclosure relates to methods and systemsfor detection of errors in parts built by AM processes through analysisof optical images to identify errors which appear during the AM buildprocess.

Description of the Related Technology

Additive Manufacturing (AM) processes are a material-addition approachto building parts, typically starting from a base material in liquid,solid sheet or powder form and consolidating the added material locally,in layer-by-layer fashion. Since the emergence of the first AM processesin the early 1990's, AM processes have been used as an alternative toconventional material-removal techniques such as milling, cutting ordrilling or molding techniques, such as injection molding or extrusionmolding, and have been shown to be especially effective in producingcomplex parts in a relatively short time, without dedicated tools suchas molds or dies.

Among the best-known AM techniques are stereolithography (SLA),3D-printing (3D-P), Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), Selective HeatSintering (SHS), Selective Laser Melting (SLM), Direct Metal LaserSintering (DMLS), Laser Beam Melting (LBM), and Electron Beam Melting(EBM). The techniques vary according to the tools used for consolidatingthe layers of a part, and according to materials that can be used in thetechniques. For example, Selective Laser Melting (SLM) is an AM processin which complex metallic parts are produced in a layer-by-layerfashion. SLM offers greater design freedom than what is possible withconventional metal-removal processes, which is advantageous toindustries with unique requirements for complex metal parts. In theaerospace industry, for example, metal airplane parts that must be bothstrong and lightweight can be configured with intricate geometricscaffolds and hollows using an SLM process. SLM can also providebenefits in the medical device industry, as bone implants or orthopedicaccessories can be custom-designed and manufactured to fit individualpatients.

Despite its current uses in the aerospace, medical-device, and manyother industries, SLM must still overcome challenges before it realizesits full potential for manufacturing parts. One of the biggestchallenges is quality monitoring and control, as robustness andreliability of the process have not been fully optimized. Variability ininput parameters (atmosphere, deposition, and scanning parameters) andin boundary conditions (part geometry, material, and machine parameters)all affect the part quality.

Errors occurring in a few layers or even in a single layer can becompounded over the whole of the part, with the result that the part isnot functional or cannot comply with quality requirements.

Accordingly, there remains a need in the art for methods and systems forerror detection that are simple, sensitive, and reproducible.

SUMMARY

The present disclosure relates to methods and systems for detectingerrors in additive manufacturing processes.

Certain embodiments provide a method for detecting an error of one ormore parts during an additive manufacturing process. The methodgenerally includes receiving a first optical image of a first layer ofbuild material corresponding to the one or more parts before or afterrecoating. The method further includes determining gray values for oneor more pixels in the first optical image. The method further includesdetecting an error of at least one of the one or more parts based on atleast one of the gray values in the first optical image compared to athreshold based on a reference image of build material.

Certain embodiments provide a computing device including a memory and aprocessor configured to perform the steps of the described method.Further, certain embodiments provide a non-transitory computer readablemedium having instructions stored thereon that when executed by acomputing device cause the computing device to perform the describedmethod.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 illustrates an example of a captured image of build materialwhere the pixels correspond to gray values.

FIG. 2 illustrates an example of a captured image of build material withan error.

FIG. 3 illustrates a graph of a histogram of an example of gray valuesfor pixels in a reference image.

FIG. 4 illustrates an image corresponding to the sum of values of binaryimages of a stack of optical images.

FIG. 5 illustrates a graph of an example of gray values for a pixelacross a number of layers.

FIG. 6 illustrates a flowchart of an example process for detecting anerror based on whether gray values of pixels satisfy a threshold.

FIG. 7 illustrates an example of an image including dross formations.

FIG. 8 illustrates an example of a graph of a distribution of grayvalues for pixels.

FIG. 9 illustrates a flowchart of an example process for detecting anerror based on whether a distribution of gray values of pixels satisfiesa threshold distribution.

FIG. 10 illustrates an example of a graph of the number of pixels withpotential errors per layer of build material.

FIG. 10A illustrates an example of individual optical images that arestacked to form a stack of optical images.

FIG. 10B illustrates an example of a representation of optical imagesoverlaid onto a 3D representation of a part.

FIG. 11 is an example of a system for designing and manufacturing 3Dobjects.

FIG. 12 illustrates a functional block diagram of one example of thecomputer shown in FIG. 11.

FIG. 13 shows a high-level process for manufacturing a 3D object usingan additive manufacturing system.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF INVENTION

The following description and the accompanying figures are directed tocertain specific embodiments. The embodiments described in anyparticular context are not intended to limit this disclosure to thespecified embodiment or to any particular usage. Those of skill in theart will recognize that the disclosed embodiments, aspects, and/orfeatures are not limited to any particular embodiments. For example,reference to “a” layer, component, part, etc., may, in certain aspects,refer to “one or more.”

Described herein are methods and systems for detection of errors in AMprocesses in which optical images of individual layers are taken (e.g.,by an imaging device, such as a camera) and gray values of pixels in theoptical images are analyzed (e.g., by a computing device). Errors suchas warpage and dross formation in overhang surfaces can be detected, andthe quality of a part can be determined. In some embodiments, detectionof the errors is part of a monitoring process or system, and correctiveactions can be applied (e.g., automatically by a computing device)during the build, or the build can be aborted. Thus, time and materialsare not lost producing a part that will not reach the qualityrequirements.

One aspect of the present disclosure relates to methods and systems fordetecting errors in parts during additive manufacturing (AM) processes.These methods and systems provide non-destructive, in-process inspectionand quality control of the additively manufactured parts.

The systems and methods described herein may be performed using variousadditive manufacturing and/or three-dimensional (3D) printing systemsand techniques. Typically, additive manufacturing techniques start froma digital representation (e.g., CAD file, such as STL, DWG, DXF, etc.)of the 3D object to be formed. Generally, the digital representation isdivided into a series of cross-sectional layers (e.g., perpendicularlyto the Z-direction, meaning parallel to a build platform), or “slices,”which are overlaid to form the object as a whole. The layers representthe 3D object, and may be generated using additive manufacturingmodeling software executed by a computing device. For example, thesoftware may include computer aided design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM)software. Information about the cross-sectional layers of the 3D objectmay be stored as cross-sectional data. An additive manufacturing (e.g.,3D printing) machine or system utilizes the cross-sectional data for thepurpose of building the 3D object on a layer by layer basis.Accordingly, additive manufacturing allows for fabrication of 3D objectsdirectly from computer generated data of the objects, such as computeraided design (CAD) files or STL files. Additive manufacturing providesthe ability to quickly manufacture both simple and complex parts withouttooling and without the need for assembly of different parts.

Additive manufacturing processes generally include providing energy froman energy source (e.g., a laser, an electron beam, etc.) to solidify(e.g., polymerize) layers of building material (e.g., plastic, metal,etc.). For example, the additive manufacturing machine may selectivelyapply energy from an energy source to (e.g., scan) the building materialbased on a job file. The job file may include information regardingslices of a digital representation of an object or objects to be builtusing an additive manufacturing process. For example, 3D objectsrepresented by CAD files may be arranged in a virtual build volumecorresponding to the build volume of an additive manufacturing device.Optionally, support structures may be added to the 3D objects in thevirtual build volume (e.g., to improve build quality, heat dissipation,reduce deformation, etc.) The resulting 3D objects may be divided intolayers or slices, as discussed. The job file, accordingly, may includeslices (e.g., a stack of slices) of the 3D objects, and parameters ofthe additive manufacturing machine for building the 3D objects.

For example, for each slice, the job file may include informationregarding a scanning pattern for the energy source to apply energy to(e.g., laser to scan, electron beam to scan, etc.) the physical layer ofbuilding material corresponding to that slice. It should be noted thatas discussed herein, the terms slice and layer may be usedinterchangeably. The scanning pattern may include one or more vectorsthat each indicates a spatial position to apply the energy to the layerof building material and a direction to apply the energy to the buildingmaterial (e.g., a direction to move the laser beam, electron beam, orother energy source over the building material while scanning).

An additive manufacturing machine builds an object on a layer by layerbasis by applying energy to (e.g., scanning) the layers of buildingmaterial according to the scanning pattern for each individual layer asindicated in a job file. For example, the additive manufacturing machinemay scan a first layer of physical building material corresponding to afirst slice of a digital representation of an object according to thescanning pattern for the first slice. The additive manufacturing machinemay then scan a second layer of building material corresponding to asecond slice adjacent to the first slice according to the scanningpattern for the second slice. The additive manufacturing machinecontinues scanning layers of building material corresponding to all theslices in the job file, until the layer corresponding to the last sliceis scanned.

The methods and systems described herein may detect errors in AMprocesses, such as stereolithography (SLA), 3D-printing (3D-P),Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), Selective Heat Sintering (SHS),Selective Laser Melting (SLM), Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS),Laser Beam Melting (LBM), and Electron Beam Melting (EBM). In someembodiments, the methods and systems detect errors in powder-bed-fusion(PBF) processes of AM. In certain embodiments, the methods and systemsdetect errors in SLM. Though certain embodiments are described withrespect to PBF processes and SLM for ease of understanding, it should benoted that the methods and systems may also be applied to other AMprocesses.

PBF processes involve the selective melting of atomized precursor powderbeds by a directed energy source. The melting of the powder occurs in asmall localized region of the energy beam, producing small volumes ofmelting, called melt pools, followed by rapid solidification, allowingfor very precise control of the solidification process in thelayer-by-layer fabrication of the part. In PBF processes such as DMLS,SLM, and LBM, a laser is used as the energy source. The laser isdeflected by a rotating mirror, then focused by a lens so it selectivelyimpinges on a powder bed. The powder is melted at the laser's focus siteon the build surface or substrate. The strategy of the scanning, powerof the energy beam, residence time or speed, and sequence of melting maybe based on a job file, as discussed. The precursor powder is eithergravitationally fed from cassettes or loaded by a piston so that it canbe raked onto the build table, a process referred to as “recoating”. Theexcess powder is typically raked off and collected for re-application.Since the laser is fixed, the build table can be lowered with eachsuccessive layer so that the part is built upon the pre-solidified layerbeneath.

Errors may occur at different stages during the AM process, and may becaused when any parameter related to the machine or to the process isnot optimal or when the 3D model of an object or objects is notoptimized for 3D printing. In some embodiments, the methods and systemsdescribed herein detect errors arising when one or more parameters suchas laser power, scan velocity, laser beam intensity profile, andstrategy of scanning are not optimally controlled, or when anon-optimized design is printed. Errors detected by the methods andsystems herein may arise in one or more parameters such as atmosphereparameters (e.g., atmosphere pressure surrounding the melt pool, oxygencontent in the process chamber), powder bed parameters (e.g., layerthickness, powder-bed smoothness, and parameters related to preparationof powder layers in between scans), scanning parameters (e.g., laserpower, scan velocity, scan strategy, laser-beam intensity profile, andparameters related to scanning of powder layer with the laser beam).

For example, during AM processes such as SLM, thermal stresses in theheated region of a part following laser scanning may result in bendingand distortion of the part during cooling. Accordingly, errors detectedby the methods and systems described herein include, but are not limitedto, surface anomalies such as surface distortion and/or deformation,delamination between layers, balling, undesired porosity, cracking,curling, irregularities in surface texture and/or surface roughness, andinaccurate production of geometric features such as sharp corners oroverhang surfaces.

Deformation of the surface layer may lead to errors in the dimensionalaccuracy of the part. Shrinkage of the part is one example of adeformation error. In a layer of the part, shrinkage may occur in thedirection parallel to the layer orientation of the part, leading to areduced surface area of the part. In some embodiments, surfacedeformation, for example due to thermal stresses, may cause regions inthe upper surface of the layer of a part to project above the powdersurface level. Warpage (also warp or warping) is an example of surfacedeformation in which there is a wrinkle, bend, twist, fold, unevenness,and/or other variation in shape from the intended shape (typically aflat, even, and/or planar shape). For example, warpage in the layer of apart built during an AM process such as SLM may cause all or a portionof the surface of the layer to project above its intended plane, andabove the powder-surface level. Warpage is a structural error in thelayer of the part, and this error may be repeated in further layers, assubsequent powder surface levels may be uneven, leading to recoatingerrors and even damage to the coater blade.

Warpage commonly occurs in AM processes such as SLM. In SLM, materialaround the laser spot is heated locally because of the fast movement ofthe heat source and the small interaction time between laser andmaterial. This heating induces high local thermal gradients (in space)which subsequently cause large thermal stresses. The TemperatureGradient Mechanism (TGM) explains the physical mechanism behind thethermal stresses. The absorption of the laser light at the upper surfaceof the part induces a temperature gradient over a certain depth in thepart. Due to the positive thermal expansion coefficient the thermalexpansion in the heated zone on the upper side of the part is largerthan the thermal expansion at the bottom of the heated zone. Thesedifferent expansions tend to induce a bending of the upper zone awayfrom the laser beam. This bending is typically not free, because it isconstrained by the cold(er) material underneath the heated zone(previously solidified layers and base plate). Stress is thereforeinduced in the heated region, which is compressive on the upper side.Typically, these stresses reach a level higher than the (temperaturedependent) yield stress of the material, such that plastic deformationof the material in the compressive zone occurs. After the laser beam haspassed and the material has cooled down, the thermal expansion of theheated region vanishes, and the upper zone shrinks. This results in abending of the specimen towards the laser beam.

In some embodiments, the warpage causes all or a portion of the surfaceof the layer to project above its intended plane, and above the powdersurface level. The warpage may lead to a projection of about 500 μm. Thewarpage may be present in one individual layer, or may be present acrossa plurality of layers.

Accordingly, a warpage event (i.e., an occurrence of warpage) may besmall or may be large, depending on the number of layers in whichwarpage appears. The size and extent of warpage may also depend on thecross-sectional area of the warpage in the xy plane.

Damaged or worn coater blades may be unable to deposit smooth, evenlayers of powder, resulting in surface errors such as a waviness of thesurface and unintended surface roughness. Another common error in AMprocesses such as SLM is a shortage of feed powder, which may result inzones of the upper surface of a part which are not covered withsufficient amounts of new powder after coating.

Another error particularly common in PBF processes such as SLM is drossformation, for example in overhang surfaces of parts. Overhang surfaces(or zones) correspond to downfacing surfaces of parts in which powder ismelted on top of loose powder particles and not on a portion of the partcorresponding to solid material. For example, there is no solid surfacebelow the portion of the part referred to as an overhang surface. Themelt pool of the overhang zone sits not on solid material but on loosepowder which has poor thermal conductivity (typically 0.2 W/mK) withrespect to the corresponding bulk material. The heat sink of the loosepowder is too low compared to the added energy, so overheating occurs inthe overhang plane. Consequently, the melt zone becomes too large andcapillary and gravity forces cause liquid material to spread into theunderlying powder material. After solidification, the dross remains andgives rise to a poor surface finish which must be removed bypost-processing treatments such as milling or sand-blasting, or the partmust be discarded. For example, dross may appear as droplets or balls ofsolid material separated or loosely connected, instead of a smooth,continuous, solid material.

As discussed, different errors (e.g., warpage, dross formation, etc.) inan object being built may occur during AM processes. The errors in AMprocesses may limit the geometrical freedom of design that makes AMparticularly attractive. Accordingly, some techniques relate topreventing and minimizing errors, for example by designing suitablesupport structures or by optimizing the build direction, or by adjustingother parameters of the build process. Other techniques relate tomethods for detecting errors such as using feedback control. Forexample, because the melting process links input parameter to partquality, melting behavior is a crucial element of the final partquality. Melt zone dynamics may be monitored by detectingelectromagnetic radiation emitted or reflected from the melt zone, while2-D maps may be generated to represent melt zone behavior. Optical andthermal sensing during a manufacturing process may be used to identify,examine, and analyze features associated with a heat source (e.g., heatdissipation, emitted radiation, etc.), while images of locally-emittedIR radiation from an applied powder layer may be analyzed.

Some techniques relate to monitoring of the volumetric surface textureof objects being built, or collecting dimensional data during a buildand comparing it to an input geometric description in order to determineif a part has been built correctly. However, these methods still requirecomplex equipment, including such as, a profilometer, interferometer,structure light for 3D shape and profile measurements, and an X-rayscanner, as well as algorithms for such processes as machine vision, 3Doptical scanning, and photogrammetry. Similarly, some techniques relatedto characterizing porosity in parts produced by polymer SLS requirecomputed tomography (CT) images in order to analyze specific featuressuch as pore distributions, volumes, and sphericities. Accordingly, suchtechniques may require complex equipment and/or analysis algorithms,lack sensitivity, or give rise to false positives in detecting errors.

Some techniques relate to using optical imaging in the visible spectrumand analysis of images of individual layers collected during a build.For example, optical data may be collected over multiple recoatingcycles and individual layers or accumulated data evaluated. In someaspects, such optical data may be analyzed for surface error. However,basic optical imaging, unlike the embodiments described herein may notallow for accuracy of detection of error, detection of specific types oferrors, or sensitivity, certainty, speed, and ease of use.

Accordingly, certain embodiments herein relate to methods and systemsthat allow detection of specific types of error in a rapid anddefinitive manner, based on optical images of one or more layers of oneor more objects (also referred to herein as a “part”) being built duringan AM process. In some embodiments, one or more optical images areacquired before or after recoating of build material during an AMprocess. In some embodiments, gray values in the pixels of the opticalimages are compared with reference gray values in order to determinewhether there are errors (e.g., at portions of the part corresponding tothe pixels). In some embodiments, the methods and systems may detecterrors such as warpage and dross formation.

Some aspects of the present disclosure relate to systems and methods fordetecting an error in an additive manufacturing process based ondetermining whether gray values of pixels in one or more optical imagesof one or more layers of build material during building of a partsatisfy a threshold. Some aspects of the present disclosure relate tosystems and methods for detecting an error based on comparing adistribution of gray values of pixels in one or more optical images to adistribution of gray values of pixels in a reference image.

For example, some systems and methods may be used for detecting warpageor dross formation in a part during an additive manufacturing processsuch as SLM.

In certain embodiments, optical images of a layer of build material maybe captured using an image capture device (e.g., optical camera). Theimage capture device may be coupled (via wire or wirelessly) to acomputing device that receives the optical images from the image capturedevice. In certain embodiments, the optical images are images in thevisible region of the electromagnetic spectrum (approximately 390-700nm). In some embodiments, illumination light from a light source (e.g.,one or more bulbs, lights, etc.) is applied to the layer of buildmaterial to illuminate the build material during capture of the opticalimages. In some embodiments, the illumination light may be directed ontothe build material surface from one or more directions, for example,from the front so that light rays are perpendicular to the movement ofthe coater and in a plane parallel with the build material surface; fromthe side so that light rays are parallel to the movement of the coaterand in a plane parallel with the build material surface; and/or from thetop so that light rays are perpendicular to the plane parallel with thebuild material surface.

In some embodiments, the image capture is calibrated. For example, insome embodiment, a calibration grid is provided. In some embodiments, acalibration grid includes small circles on a rectangular grid (withregular spacing dX in X and dY in Y direction) on the build platform. Animage of this calibration grid may be taken with the image capturedevice. Based on this image, a calibration algorithm determines a lineartransformation matrix to compensate for the perspective error.Non-linear effects such as barrel or pincushion distortion may benegligible, but can also be corrected with this method. In someembodiments, since both the image capture device and the build platformhave fixed positions on the additive manufacturing device, the samelinear transformation matrix can be used to perform the calibration.

In some embodiments, light calibration is performed to compensate foruneven gray values (e.g., due to illumination being greater near thelight source). For example, an image of the build material may becaptured by the image capture device with uneven light distributionpresent or one or more light sources. Noise (e.g., high frequency noise)may be filtered from the captured image with an averaging filter. Theresulting images may be referred to as shading patterns. For subsequentimages captured by the image capture device, they may be lightcalibrated by dividing the gray value of a pixel in the image by thegray value of the corresponding pixel of the corresponding shadingpattern. Then the pixel gray values are rescaled by multiplying with themean gray value of the shading pattern. Therefore, in some embodiments,optical images as discussed herein may refer to light calibrated opticalimages in certain embodiments.

The pixels of the captured images may correspond to or be converted togray values (e.g., by measuring or calculating gray values). Forexample, FIG. 1 illustrates an example of a captured image of buildmaterial where the pixels correspond to gray values. As seen, differentpixels have different shades (darker or lighter) of gray values forpixels.

As discussed, some errors (e.g., warpage) in the AM process may occurwhere build material projects above its intended plane (e.g., above thelayer of build material before or after recoating). Depending on thedirection of illumination of the layer such errors may cause differentoptical patterns in the layer. For example, where the illumination comesfrom the top, such errors may be seen as lighter than the surroundingbuild material, and therefore may have a lighter gray value. In anotherexample, where the illumination comes from the side, such errors maycast a shadow on the build material near the error that can be seen asdarker than the surrounding build material, and therefore may have adarker gray value. Therefore, in certain embodiments, the gray value ofpixels of an optical image may be used to determine if there is an errorin an AM process, and further may be used to determine where the errorhas occurred in a layer of a build. For example, the gray values ofpixels of one or more optical images corresponding to one or more layersof a build may be compared to a reference set of gray values of pixels.If the gray values of pixels of the one or more optical images are notwithin a threshold value of the reference set of gray values of pixels(e.g., darker or lighter depending on illumination), the computingdevice may determine an error has occurred as discussed herein.

For example, FIG. 2 illustrates an example of a captured image of buildmaterial with an error at area 205. As seen, the area 205 has grayvalues that are different from the gray values of the surrounding buildmaterial.

In some embodiments, at least one optical image may be acquired fromeach layer before or after recoating. In some embodiments, more than oneoptical image of each layer is acquired. Thus, “an optical image” of alayer as described herein may refer to more than one optical image ofthe same layer, for example, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10 or more optical images ofthe same layer. The optical images of the same layer may be analyzedindividually, or multiple optical images of the same layer may becompiled and analyzed together so that one consolidated image representsthe individual layer.

In some embodiments, optical images may be acquired for the layers thatwill be analyzed. In some embodiments, a single layer is analyzed. Insome embodiments, at least 2 layers are analyzed. In some embodiments,the method comprises acquiring a first optical image of a first layerbefore or after recoating and a second optical image of a second layerbefore or after recoating. In some embodiments, the method furthercomprises acquiring an optical image of each of any additional layersbefore or after recoating. Accordingly, in some embodiments, the methodcomprises acquiring an optical image of each of n layers of the partbefore or after recoating. For example, the method may compriseacquiring a first optical image of a first layer after recoating,acquiring a second optical image of a second layer after recoating,acquiring a third optical image of a third layer after recoating, and soon until an optical image has been acquired of each layer that will beanalyzed. The minimum number of layers (and corresponding opticalimages) to be analyzed according to the methods herein may be 1 or maybe 2. In some embodiments, optical images are acquired of each of 1, 2,5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95,100, 150, or 200 layers. The number of layers analyzed may depend on thethickness of each layer (e.g., for SLM processes, a layer is typicallyaround 30 μm), and the height of the part or parts that are built. Forexample, a part with a height of 30 cm may be built from about 10000layers, each layer having a thickness of 30 μm. In this example, anoptical image of each of 2 layers may be acquired and/or optical imagesof each of more than 2 layers may be acquired, up to a maximum of 10000layers. In some embodiments, an optical image is acquired of each andevery layer of the part before or after recoating. In certainembodiments, an optical image is acquired of a subset of layers of thepart before or after recoating.

In some embodiments, all layers corresponding to the part(s) may beanalyzed after the build, or select layers corresponding to a portion ofthe part may be analyzed during the build. In certain embodiments,portions of one or more layers (e.g., corresponding to a part ofmultiple parts, or a portion of a part (e.g., overhang portion) may beanalyzed during the build. In certain embodiments, the layers analyzedare adjacent to each other. Thus, the first layer and the second layermay follow consecutively, and any additional layers analyzed may followconsecutively after the second layer. In some embodiments, the layersare not adjacent to each other. For example, the first layer and thesecond layer may not follow consecutively, and any additional layerswill not follow consecutively after the second layer or after eachother. In certain embodiments, a plurality of layers are adjacent toeach other, while at least one layer is not adjacent to the others.Accordingly, one layer may be analyzed and/or a plurality of layers(e.g., a stack or cluster of a plurality of layers) may be analyzed,while one or more intervening layers are not analyzed. Layers may beselected randomly for analysis, such that clusters of layers are sampledat random intervals during the build of the part. Specific layers may beselected for analysis in portions of the part where an error (e.g.,warpage) is likely to be found.

As discussed, the gray values of one or more optical images may beanalyzed to determine if there is an error in the build process bycomparing the gray values of the one or more optical images to areference set of gray values of pixels, which may be referred to as areference image. In some embodiments, the reference image is an image ofa layer before or after recoating that has no error (e.g., warpage).

For example, the reference image may be an image of a layer of buildmaterial (e.g., powder bed) before or after recoating, or the image of apart in which there is no warpage. The part has no warpage, andtherefore the layer has an expected uniformity. In some embodiments, thereference image is an image of the layer before any laser scanning hastaken place. In some embodiments, the image capture device andillumination light are calibrated before capturing any images, and thereference image and images of layers before or after recoating are takenby the same image capture device/illumination light under the samecalibration conditions (e.g., direction of light, direction of imagecapture, etc.). In some embodiments, a universal reference image ormodel image may be used, which represents a universal non-errorcondition for comparison with any layer and/or any part(s). In someembodiments, the reference image may be specific to particular part(s)and/or layer(s).

In some embodiments, a histogram is created of gray values for thepixels in the reference image, and an average gray value (μ) and astandard deviation (s) from the average gray value may be determined.For example, FIG. 3 illustrates a graph of a histogram of gray valuesfor pixels in a reference image. The X-axis represents the gray value,and the Y-axis represents the number of pixels with the gray value. Asseen in FIG. 3, for the reference image, the majority of pixels havegray values centered around a single value, indicative of a mostlyuniform gray value over all the pixels. Statistical calculations may beused to determine a threshold gray value based on μ and s. The thresholdgray value may be a value either above or below which any gray valuewill be considered significant and/or a positive indicator of an error(e.g., warpage). For example, the threshold gray value may be a grayvalue which would be statistically unlikely to occur in a referenceimage. In some embodiments, a threshold gray value may be based on amultiple of s. In some particular embodiments, the threshold gray valuemay be based on a calculation involving at least three (3) times s. Inother embodiments, the threshold gray value may be based on acalculation involving 4, 5, or 6 times s. In certain embodiments, thethreshold gray value may be the average μ minus three (3) times s(TV=μ−3*s). In certain embodiments, the threshold gray value may be theaverage μ minus 3, 4, 5, or 6 times s. In certain embodiments, thethreshold gray value may be the average μ plus three (3) times s(TV=μ+3*s). In certain embodiments, the threshold gray value may be theaverage μ plus 3, 4, 5, or 6 times s. In particular, as discussed,lighter or darker gray values may be indicative of an error (e.g.,depending on lighting, etc.).

In some embodiments, per-pixel operations are used to analyze theoptical images corresponding to layers of build material acquired duringa build of an object. For example, individual pixels of one or moreoptical images may be analyzed by a computing device to determine if thepixel's gray value satisfies a threshold gray value (e.g., based on areference image). In some embodiments, if the gray value of the pixeldoes not satisfy the threshold for one or more layers, the computingdevice determines there is an error in the object corresponding to thepixel and may alert a user, stop the build, or take other appropriateaction, such as discussed herein. In some embodiments, each pixel in alayer may be given a binary value (e.g., 0 or 1) based on whether thepixel's gray value satisfies the threshold gray value, therebygenerating a binary image for the layer. For example, if the pixel'sgray value satisfies the threshold gray value the pixel may be assigneda first binary value (e.g., 0 or 1) and if the pixel's gray value doesnot satisfy the threshold gray value, the pixel may be assigned a secondbinary value (e.g., the other of 0 or 1). These binary pixel values maybe used for visualization, to determine an error using optical imagesfor multiple layers, etc., as discussed herein.

In some embodiments, if a single layer includes a pixel with a grayvalue that does not satisfy a threshold, the computing device determinesthere is an error. In some embodiments, if a single layer includes athreshold number of pixels with a gray value that does not satisfy athreshold, the computing device determines there is an error. In someembodiments, if a pixel has a gray value that does not satisfy athreshold across a threshold number of layers, the computing devicedetermines there is an error. In some embodiments, if a threshold numberof pixels have a gray value that does not satisfy a threshold across athreshold number of layers, the computing device determines there is anerror.

For example, in some embodiments, the computing device collects, stores,and analyzes a stack of optical images (i.e., optical images of aplurality of layers), which may be referred to as pixelwise operationsacross multiple layers. In some such embodiments, each pixel in each ofthe optical images is analyzed, whereby for each pixel a sequence ofgray values is constructed which shows the evolution of the gray valuefor that pixel over the whole stack of images (termed a sequence or apixel sequence). In this sequence, characteristics can be derived suchas the average pixel value, the standard deviation, the number of timesthe gray values fails to meet a threshold, the number of times it failsto meet a threshold in subsequent images, etc. Accordingly, thecharacteristics of a single pixel are followed over the stack of images.In some embodiments, the characteristics of every pixel is followed overthe stack of images. In some embodiments, the characteristics of asubset of pixels (e.g. corresponding to one or more parts, a portion ofa part, such as corresponding to an overhang, etc.) is followed over thestack of images. In some embodiments, a new image based on the stack ofoptical images is generated. The values of pixels of the new image maycorrespond to the minimal pixel value across the layers, average pixelvalue, standard deviation of gray values, the number of times that apixel value failed to meet a threshold value, etc. In some embodiments,the minimal pixel area analyzed is smaller than or equal to the area ofthe smallest polygon that represents the part or a portion of the part.For example, FIG. 4 illustrates an image corresponding to the sum ofvalues of binary images of a stack of optical images. The summed valuesare represented as gray scale images, with lighter values correspondingto areas of potential error (e.g., gray values that did not satisfy athreshold are represented by lighter values).

In some embodiments, analysis of the gray values for pixels acrosslayers may be generated and displayed by a computing device asvisualizations, such as graphs, images, etc., as discussed herein. Forexample, a graph of the gray values for each pixel may be plottedagainst layer number (e.g., as shown in FIG. 5). The gray values foreach pixel are then compared with gray values of pixels from a referenceimage. As seen in FIG. 5, the X-axis represents the layer number, andthe Y-axis represents the gray value for the pixel at each layer. As canbe seen, for the particular pixel graphed. There are large variationsfrom the average gray value of the pixel between layers 300-400, whichmay be indicative of an error.

FIG. 6 illustrates a flowchart 600 of an example process for detectingan error based on whether gray values of pixels satisfy a threshold. At605, an image capture device captures a reference image of buildmaterial without errors. At 610, a computing device determines athreshold gray value based on the reference image. For example, thethreshold gray value may be determined based on a standard deviationfrom an average gray value of the reference image. At 615, the buildprocess of one or more parts is started. At 620, the image capturedevice captures one or more images of one or more layers of the buildmaterial before or after a recoating process during build of the parts.At 625, the computing device determines if there is an error in theparts. For example, the image capture device compares the capturedimages of layers of build material to the reference image. If any of thegray values of pixels (e.g., corresponding to one or more parts) in theimages of the layers of build material (e.g., for a single layer orbased on multiple layers as described herein) do not satisfy thethreshold gray value, the computing device determines there is an error.If there is no error, at 630, the computing device continues the buildprocess and determines if there are more layers to build and captureimages for. If there are more layers to build and capture images for,the process returns to 625, otherwise the process ends. If there is anerror, at 635, the computing device takes some action, such as alertinga user, logging data, stopping the build, continuing with the build,etc., as described herein.

In some embodiments, analysis of the gray values for pixels across anumber of layers may be used to determine if there is an error in thebuild (e.g., at the location of a pixel). For example, in someembodiments, for each pixel sequence (i.e., the sequence of gray valuesof the corresponding pixel over the stack of images) the occurrence ofpixels that do not satisfy a grey value threshold (e.g., with a value of0 or 1, depending on implementation) in the binary images is compared toa predetermined boundary number indicative of an error (e.g., warpage)in a part. If a pixel does not satisfy a gray value threshold at leastthe boundary number of times over the number of layers, the computingdevice may determine an error has occurred. Otherwise, the computingdevice may determine an error has not occurred. In some embodiments, thepredetermined boundary number may be equal to the specific number oftimes that a given pixel must have a value of 1 (or 0) in its binaryimages in order for the specific number to represent a true error (e.g.,warpage) event. For example, a predetermined boundary number may be 2 ina particular system because a given pixel must not satisfy a thresholdgray value at least 2 times (in at least 2 layers) in order to beconsidered an error. Or a predetermined boundary number may be 10,because any number below 10 may not be a true error event. In someembodiments, the predetermined boundary number is equal to the number oflayers for which optical images are acquired. The predetermined boundarynumber may be lower than the number of layers for which optical imagesare acquired, for example, if optical images of 5000 layers are acquiredbut the predetermined boundary number is set at 35. The predeterminedboundary number may be determined experimentally by comparing, forexample, warped parts to non-warped parts, and determining how manytimes a given pixel does not satisfy a threshold gray value in thebinary images when a part has warpage, as compared to the number oftimes a given pixel not satisfy a threshold gray value in the binaryimages when the part is not warped, or has another type of error. Incertain embodiments, a predetermined boundary number is specific towarpage.

In some embodiments, a warpage event is characterized by a pixelsubsequence (e.g., a subset of the pixel sequence) in which all of thepixels in the subsequence do not satisfy a threshold gray value,followed by a pixel subsequence in which all of the pixels do satisfy athreshold gray value.

In some embodiments, warpage can be distinguished from other errors inwhich a pixel in the pixel sequence does not satisfy a threshold grayvalue over a number of layers. For example, a damaged coater blade maycreate a pattern of stripes on the build material after recoating, butthis would be observed throughout all layers. In contrast, warpage maybe observed in a subset of layers, but not in other layers. In certainembodiments, warpage can be distinguished from noise in the system, orfrom a small number of events whose occurrence is less than thepredetermined boundary number.

In some embodiments, there may be more than one predetermined boundarynumber, for example, for error (e.g., warpage) events of differentsizes. A low predetermined boundary number such as 2 may correspond to asmall error event. In some embodiments, a small error event may bepermissible, if the quality requirements for the part will permit asmall defect. A high predetermined boundary number such as 10 maycorrespond to a large error event. In some embodiments, a part may haveerror events of different sizes. Error events in non-critical areas maybe permitted, for example if an error event occurs in a non-criticalarea that can be post-processed, such that the volume in which the erroroccurred can be removed by post-processing. Similarly, large errorevents may be permitted in noncritical areas. In contrast, large errorevents may not be permitted in critical areas (e.g., areas or zones thatcannot be post-processed). Thus, the predetermined boundary number maybe higher for noncritical areas than for critical areas of the part. Insome embodiments, a build will be stopped if there is an error event ina critical area, while a build will not be stopped if there is an errorevent in a noncritical area. In some embodiments, the build willcontinue regardless of size or number of error events, but theinformation about the error gathered using the methods and systemsdescribed herein will serve as a report of the error in the part and/orthe overall quality of the part.

In some embodiments, analysis of more than 1 layer increases sensitivityand specificity of the methods and systems described herein. In someembodiments, multiple binary images are combined into a single image.The single image represents the number of occurrences of 1 and 0 foreach pixel in each of the individual layers. A single image may simplifythe interpretation of the results by humans controlling the machine,allowing them to see at a glance the resulting part error in differentareas across the build. It also may simplify comparing the production ofparts over multiple builds.

In some embodiments, for every pixel sequence the computing devicedetermines a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) for the gray values of thepixels across the layers, which allows determining whether there arecertain variations in the gray value sequence occurring more often thanothers. For instance, if there is a small error every second layer, theFFT will show a peak at the corresponding frequency. In someembodiments, non-natural variations in gray values are detected, usingfor instance the Statistical Process Control (SPC) rules from WesternElectric on control charts. SPC allows detection of smaller changes ingray values which still fall within the threshold, but which showoverall non-natural variations (either increases or decreases). Thesenon-natural variations may have a determined cause, which may not bepresent in normal circumstances. In some embodiments, a lack of changein gray values (or distribution of gray values) from one layer to thenext after recoating indicates errors. For example, if powder was notproperly deposited, there may not be a difference in gray values betweenthe layer before recoating and after recoating.

In some embodiments, the present methods and systems are used in aquality control process in order to monitor and control the AM process.Following detection of errors, such as warpage in SLM, feedback controlmechanisms may be used to correct the error. In some embodiments,detection of warpage triggers remedial actions. In some embodiments,detection of warpage aborts the build.

In some aspects, additive manufacturing of overhang surfaces presentsunique challenges, where dross formation occurs when overhang surfacesare manufactured.

Overhang surfaces (also called downfacing surfaces) may be surfaces ofthe part which form an angle with the horizontal plane that is smallerthan a critical angle. In some embodiments, a critical angle is about30°.

Various measures can be taken to prevent dross formation, like changingpart orientations to minimize overhang, modifying support structures,and/or changing process parameters such as spot diameter, laser power,and scanning speed. In order to determine whether these measures areeffective at preventing dross formation, and/or to determine whetherdross formation has occurred, certain embodiments of methods and systemsherein detect dross formation in an overhang surface of a part duringthe AM build. In particular, embodiments of systems and methodsdescribed for detecting an error in an additive manufacturing processbased on determining whether gray values in one or more optical imagesof one or more layers of build material during building of a partsatisfy a threshold may similarly be used for detecting dross formation.For example, optical images of one or more layers of build material maybe captured as discussed, and the gray values of pixels of the opticalimages may be analyzed by the computing device to determine if there isdross formation.

For example, as discussed, dross formation may result in balling ordroplets of build material that are separated in one or more layers. Theballing or droplets of build material may appear as different grayvalues in an image. For example, depending on the direction ofillumination of the layer such balls may cause different opticalpatterns in the layer. For example, where illumination light comes fromthe front or from the side during capture of the optical images, shadowlines around the balling that is characteristic of dross formation maybe cast on the build material. For example, where the illumination comesfrom the top, such balls may be seen as lighter than the surroundingbuild material, and therefore may have a lighter gray value. Therefore,in certain embodiments, the gray value of pixels of an optical image maybe used to determine if there a dross formations in an AM process, andfurther may be used to determine where the dross formations haveoccurred in a layer of a build.

For example, dross formations may appear as a pattern of pixel values(e.g., distribution of light and dark pixel values) in one or morelayers corresponding to a pattern of balling. FIG. 7 illustrates anexample of an image including such dross formations. In particular, asseen in areas 705, there is a pattern of light and dark areascorresponding to dross formations. Accordingly, in some embodiments, adistribution of gray values in the captured image is compared to areference distribution of gray values of pixels from a reference image.The distribution of gray values may be a normal (or Gaussian)distribution. In some embodiments, the reference distribution of grayvalues from a reference image corresponds to an area of an optical imagewithout an overhang region of a part.

For example, in some embodiments, the distribution of gray values for asingle layer is compared to a reference distribution. The referencedistribution may have gray values concentrated over a smaller set ofvalues than for a distribution corresponding to a dross formation. Insome embodiments, dross formation is reflected by a change in thedistribution of gray values of pixels in the overhang zone as comparedto the distribution of gray values of pixels in the reference zone. Thechange in distribution of the gray values of pixels in the zones may bechange in the standard deviation of the distribution and/or a shift inthe average of the distribution.

FIG. 8 illustrates an example of a graph of such a distribution of grayvalues of pixels. In particular, the X-axis represents the gray valuesfor the pixels, and the Y-axis represents the number of pixels with thegray values. Line 805 represents the expected distribution of grayvalues without a dross formation. As seen, the gray values of the pixelsare mostly centered around a single gray value. Line 810 represents thedistribution of gray values for an overhang layer with dross formations.As seen, the gray values are distributed over a variety of values. Line815 represents the distribution of gray values for a layer above anoverhang layer. As seen, the gray value distribution is less than thatof line 810, but still may have some dross formation. Line 820represents the distribution of gray values for a layer two layers abovean overhang layer. As seen, the gray value distribution is closer tothat of line 805, and there may no longer be dross formations.Accordingly, in some embodiments, the distribution of pixel values maybe monitored for multiple layers, and if the dross formations diminishover subsequent layers, the computing device may determine the error isminimal and continue with the build process.

In some embodiments, dross formation detection may only be performedwhere there are overhangs in the build. In particular, the computingdevice may determine in which layers, and which portions of layers,overhangs occur and perform dross formation detection (e.g., comparisonof gray value distributions) in those regions. For example, overhangsurfaces may correspond to only a portion of a part, and these surfacesmay be identified within specific layers. In some embodiments, zones inthe optical image which correspond to the overhang surfaces may beidentified by applying a mask to the optical image of a layer. The maskmay correspond to a slice in the CAD file of the part or in the jobfile. For example, in some embodiments, starting from the CAD files ofthe parts visible in a slice, the computing device generates a pictureof a virtual layer that has values of 2 where there is an overhang zonein the layer (thus the zone has no material in the previous layer), 1where there is a non-overhang zone in the layer (thus having material inthe previous layer), and 0 where there is no material. This picture maybe superimposed onto the optical image of the corresponding layer, whichis acquired after scanning.

In some embodiments, gray values are measured for the pixels in thosezones which correspond to the overhang surfaces. Gray values for atleast three (3) pixels may be measured in the zone. In some embodiments,gray values are measured for 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more pixels. Insome embodiments, gray values are measured for 4, 9, 16, 25, or 36pixels. In some embodiments, the minimal pixel area is smaller than orequal to the area of the smallest polygon that represents the zone or aportion of the zone.

FIG. 9 illustrates a flowchart 900 of an example process for detectingan error based on whether a distribution of gray values of pixelssatisfies a threshold distribution. At 905, an image capture devicecaptures a reference image of build material without errors. At 910, acomputing device determines a reference gray value distribution based onthe reference image. For example, the reference gray value distributionmay be a Gaussian distribution of gray values. At 915, the build processof one or more parts is started. At 920, the image capture devicecaptures one or more images of one or more layers of the build materialbefore or after a recoating process during build of the parts. At 925,the computing device determines if there is an error in the parts. Forexample, the image capture device compares the captured images of layersof build material to the reference image. If the distribution of grayvalues of pixels (e.g., corresponding to one or more parts) in theimages of the layers of build material (e.g., for a single layer orbased on multiple layers as described herein) is different than thereference distribution by a threshold (e.g., the standard deviation ofthe distribution does not satisfy a threshold deviation from thestandard deviation of the reference distribution), the computing devicedetermines there is an error. If there is no error, at 930, thecomputing device continues the build process and determines if there aremore layers to build and capture images for. If there are more layers tobuild and capture images for, the process returns to 925, otherwise theprocess ends. If there is an error, at 935, the computing device takessome action, such as alerting a user, logging data, stopping the build,continuing with the build, etc., as described herein.

In some embodiments, the type of error to be detected determines whetheroptical images are taken before or after recoating. For example, todetect warpage, optical images may be taken after recoating, whereas todetect dross, optical images may be taken after scanning but beforerecoating.

In some embodiments, the present methods and systems are used in aquality control process, in order to monitor and control the AM process.Following detection of errors, such as dross formation in overhangsurfaces in SLM, feedback control mechanisms may be used to correct theerror. In some embodiments, detection of dross formation triggersremedial actions. In some embodiments, detection of dross formationaborts the build. In some embodiments, the quality control process is astatistical process control (SPC). In some embodiments, Western electricrules are applied to detect non-random conditions on control charts.

In some embodiments, if there are multiple parts/support structuresbeing built, the parts (e.g., and their corresponding supportstructures) may be individually monitored for errors by the computingdevice utilizing the techniques described herein. For example, using theoriginal CAD data used to create a job file for manufacturing multipleparts, it is possible to isolate/identify the pixels that belong to eachpart. Other techniques may also be used to select/filter portions of thecaptured images to monitor. Accordingly, if only some part of themultiple parts is determined to have an error, the computing device maytake remedial actions accordingly. For example, if some parts do nothave an error, the computing device may continue the build. In someembodiments, the computing device may continue the build of partswithout an error, but stop building additional layers for parts with anerror.

In some aspects, individual parts may be monitored by monitoring thepixels that belong to each part and further a small area around thepixels that may be referred to as a bounding box. For example, allpixels within a threshold distance (e.g., in the X, Y, or Z direction)of the part may be monitored. In some embodiments, different thresholddistances may be used in the X, Y, or Z directions. For example, sinceerrors typically affect layers above and below the one where theyoccurred, a smaller threshold distance may be used for X and Y, but alarger one for the Z direction.

In some embodiments, in addition or alternative to a computing devicedetecting errors based on the gray value of pixels, information aboutgray values of pixels for layers may be presented in a visual format forease of use by a user of a computing device.

For example, FIG. 10 illustrates an example of a graph of the number ofpixels with potential errors per layer of build material that may begenerated and displayed by a computing device. The X-axis represents thenumber of each layer, and the Y-axis represents the number of pixelsthat do not satisfy a gray value threshold. Such a graph may show iferrors are localized (e.g., to one or more layers) or the severity oferrors (e.g., the surface area affected of a given layer). For example,a distribution of values along the X-axis indicates error localization,and the Y-axis value indicates severity of errors.

In some embodiments, binary images of the optical images may be combinedand represented as grayscale, black and white, or false-color images in2D to show a view (e.g., top view) of where errors have occurred in abuild volume. For example, the color or darkness of an area maycorrespond to the likelihood there is an error in the area.

In some embodiments, stacks of optical images (e.g., binary images) maybe visualized as a 3D rendering (e.g., in color, black and white,grayscale) and similarly represent likelihood of an error in a volume ofthe build material. In some embodiments, volume rendering can be used tovisualize the 3D rendering. In some embodiments, the stack can beconverted into a 3D model (e.g., using a marching-cubes algorithm). Forexample, FIG. 10A illustrates an example of individual optical images1005 that are stacked to form a stack of optical images 1010.

In some embodiments, the representations of the optical images may beoverlaid onto 2D or 3D representations of parts to better indicate wherean error has occurred in the part. For example, FIG. 10B illustrates anexample of a representation of the optical images 1005 overlaid onto a3D representation of a part 1020.

In some embodiments, the visualizations are for the entire build. Insome embodiments, the visualizations are limited to certain parts. Insome embodiments, the visualizations are for a finished build. In someembodiments, the visualizations are for a build in progress.

Embodiments of the invention may be practiced within a system fordesigning and manufacturing 3D objects. Turning to FIG. 11, an exampleof a computer environment suitable for the implementation of 3D objectdesign and manufacturing is shown. The environment includes a system1100. The system 1100 includes one or more computers 1102 a-1102 d,which can be, for example, any workstation, server, or other computingdevice capable of processing information. In some aspects, each of thecomputers 1102 a-1102 d can be connected, by any suitable communicationstechnology (e.g., an internet protocol), to a network 1105 (e.g., theInternet). Accordingly, the computers 1102 a-1102 d may transmit andreceive information (e.g., software, digital representations of 3-Dobjects, commands or instructions to operate an additive manufacturingdevice, etc.) between each other via the network 1105.

The system 1100 further includes one or more additive manufacturingdevices (e.g., 3-D printers) 1108 a-1108 b. As shown the additivemanufacturing device 1108 a is directly connected to a computer 1102 d(and through computer 1102 d connected to computers 1102 a-1102 c viathe network 1105) and additive manufacturing device 1108 b is connectedto the computers 1102 a-1102 d via the network 1105. Accordingly, one ofskill in the art will understand that an additive manufacturing device1108 may be directly connected to a computer 1102, connected to acomputer 1102 via a network 1105, and/or connected to a computer 1102via another computer 1102 and the network 1105.

It should be noted that though the system 1100 is described with respectto a network and one or more computers, the techniques described hereinalso apply to a single computer 1102, which may be directly connected toan additive manufacturing device 1108. Any of the computers 1102 a-1102d may be configured to function as the computing device described withrespect to FIGS. 1-10. Further, any of the computers 1102 a-1102 d maybe configured to perform the operations described herein, including theoperations described with respect to FIGS. 6 and 9.

FIG. 12 illustrates a functional block diagram of one example of acomputer of FIG. 11. The computer 1102 a includes a processor 1210 indata communication with a memory 1220, an input device 1230, and anoutput device 1240. In some embodiments, the processor is further indata communication with an optional network interface card 1290.Although described separately, it is to be appreciated that functionalblocks described with respect to the computer 1102 a need not beseparate structural elements. For example, the processor 1210 and memory1220 may be embodied in a single chip.

The processor 1210 can be a general purpose processor, a digital signalprocessor (DSP), an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC), afield programmable gate array (FPGA) or other programmable logic device,discrete gate or transistor logic, discrete hardware components, or anysuitable combination thereof designed to perform the functions describedherein. A processor may also be implemented as a combination ofcomputing devices, e.g., a combination of a DSP and a microprocessor, aplurality of microprocessors, one or more microprocessors in conjunctionwith a DSP core, or any other such configuration.

The processor 1210 can be coupled, via one or more buses, to readinformation from or write information to memory 1220. The processor mayadditionally, or in the alternative, contain memory, such as processorregisters. The memory 1220 can include processor cache, including amulti-level hierarchical cache in which different levels have differentcapacities and access speeds. The memory 1220 can also include randomaccess memory (RAM), other volatile storage devices, or non-volatilestorage devices. The storage can include hard drives, optical discs,such as compact discs (CDs) or digital video discs (DVDs), flash memory,floppy discs, magnetic tape, and Zip drives.

The processor 1210 also may be coupled to an input device 1230 and anoutput device 1240 for, respectively, receiving input from and providingoutput to a user of the computer 802 a. Suitable input devices include,but are not limited to, a keyboard, buttons, keys, switches, a pointingdevice, a mouse, a joystick, a remote control, an infrared detector, abar code reader, a scanner, a video camera (possibly coupled with videoprocessing software to, e.g., detect hand gestures or facial gestures),a motion detector, or a microphone (possibly coupled to audio processingsoftware to, e.g., detect voice commands). Suitable output devicesinclude, but are not limited to, visual output devices, includingdisplays and printers, audio output devices, including speakers,headphones, earphones, and alarms, additive manufacturing devices, andhaptic output devices.

The processor 1210 further may be coupled to a network interface card1290. The network interface card 1290 prepares data generated by theprocessor 1210 for transmission via a network according to one or moredata transmission protocols. The network interface card 1290 alsodecodes data received via a network according to one or more datatransmission protocols. The network interface card 1290 can include atransmitter, receiver, or both. In other embodiments, the transmitterand receiver can be two separate components. The network interface card1290, can be embodied as a general purpose processor, a digital signalprocessor (DSP), an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC), afield programmable gate array (FPGA) or other programmable logic device,discrete gate or transistor logic, discrete hardware components, or anysuitable combination thereof designed to perform the functions describedherein.

FIG. 13 illustrates a process 1300 for manufacturing a 3-D object ordevice. As shown, at a step 1305, a digital representation of the objectis designed using a computer, such as the computer 1102 a. For example,2-D or 3-D data may be input to the computer 1102 a for aiding indesigning the digital representation of the 3-D object. Continuing at astep 1310, information is sent from the computer 1102 a to an additivemanufacturing device, such as additive manufacturing device 1108, andthe device 1108 commences the manufacturing process in accordance withthe received information. At a step 1315, the additive manufacturingdevice 808 continues manufacturing the 3-D object using suitablematerials, such as a liquid resin. At a step 1320, the object is finallybuilt.

These suitable materials may include, but are not limited to aphotopolymer resin, polyurethane, methylmethacrylate-acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymer, resorbablematerials such as polymer-ceramic composites, etc. Examples ofcommercially available materials are: DSM Somos® series of materials7100, 8100, 9100, 9420, 10100, 11100, 12110, 14120 and 15100 from DSMSomos; ABSplus-P430, ABSi, ABS-ESD7, ABS-M30, ABS-M30i, PC-ABS, PC ISO,PC, ULTEM 9085, PPSF and PPSU materials from Stratasys; Accura Plastic,DuraForm, CastForm, Laserform and VisiJet line of materials from3-Systems; the PA line of materials, PrimeCast and PrimePart materialsand Alumide and CarbonMide from EOS GmbH. The VisiJet line of materialsfrom 3-Systems may include Visijet Flex, Visijet Tough, Visijet Clear,Visijet HiTemp, Visijet e-stone, Visijet Black, Visijet Jewel, VisijetFTI, etc. Examples of other materials may include Objet materials, suchas Objet Fullcure, Objet Veroclear, Objet Digital Materials, ObjetDuruswhite, Objet Tangoblack, Objet Tangoplus, Objet Tangoblackplus,etc. Another example of materials may include materials from theRenshape 5000 and 7800 series. Further, at a step 820, the 3-D object isgenerated.

Various embodiments disclosed herein provide for the use of computersoftware being executed on a computing device. A skilled artisan willreadily appreciate that these embodiments may be implemented usingnumerous different types of computing devices, including bothgeneral-purpose and/or special-purpose computing system environments orconfigurations. Examples of well-known computing systems, environments,and/or configurations that may be suitable for use in connection withthe embodiments set forth above may include, but are not limited to,personal computers, server computers, hand-held or laptop devices,multiprocessor systems, microprocessor-based systems, programmableconsumer electronics, network PCs, minicomputers, mainframe computers,distributed computing environments that include any of the above systemsor devices, and the like. These devices may include stored instructions,which, when executed by a microprocessor in the computing device, causethe computer device to perform specified actions to carry out theinstructions. As used herein, instructions refer to computer-implementedsteps for processing information in the system. Instructions can beimplemented in software, firmware or hardware and include any type ofprogrammed step undertaken by components of the system.

A microprocessor may be any conventional general purpose single- ormulti-chip microprocessor such as a Pentium® processor, a Pentium® Proprocessor, a 8051 processor, a MIPS® processor, a Power PC® processor,or an Alpha® processor. In addition, the microprocessor may be anyconventional special purpose microprocessor such as a digital signalprocessor or a graphics processor. The microprocessor typically hasconventional address lines, conventional data lines, and one or moreconventional control lines.

Aspects and embodiments of the inventions disclosed herein may beimplemented as a method, apparatus or article of manufacture usingstandard programming or engineering techniques to produce software,firmware, hardware, or any combination thereof. The term “article ofmanufacture” as used herein refers to code or logic implemented inhardware or non-transitory computer readable media such as opticalstorage devices, and volatile or non-volatile memory devices ortransitory computer readable media such as signals, carrier waves, etc.Such hardware may include, but is not limited to, field programmablegate arrays (FPGAs), application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs),complex programmable logic devices (CPLDs), programmable logic arrays(PLAs), microprocessors, or other similar processing devices.

Various embodiments disclosed herein may be implemented using a computeror computer control system. A skilled artisan will readily appreciatethat these embodiments may be implemented using numerous different typesof computing devices, including both general-purpose and special-purposecomputing-system environments or configurations. Examples of well-knowncomputing systems, environments, and/or configurations that may besuitable for use in connection with the embodiments set forth above mayinclude, but are not limited to, personal computers, server computers,hand-held or laptop devices, multiprocessor systems,microprocessor-based systems, programmable consumer electronics, networkPCs, minicomputers, mainframe computers, distributed computingenvironments that include any of the above systems or devices, and thelike. These devices may include stored instructions, which, whenexecuted by a microprocessor in the computing device, cause the computerdevice to perform specified actions to carry out the instructions. Asused herein, instructions refer to computer-implemented steps forprocessing information in the system. Instructions can be implemented insoftware, firmware or hardware and include any type of programmed stepundertaken by components of the system.

A microprocessor may be any conventional general purpose single- ormulti-chip microprocessor such as a Pentium® processor, a Pentium® Proprocessor, a 8051 processor, a MIPS® processor, a Power PC® processor,or an Alpha® processor. In addition, the microprocessor may be anyconventional special purpose microprocessor such as a digital signalprocessor or a graphics processor. The microprocessor typically hasconventional address lines, conventional data lines, and one or moreconventional control lines.

Aspects and embodiments of the inventions disclosed herein may beimplemented as a method, apparatus or article of manufacture usingstandard programming or engineering techniques to produce software,firmware, hardware, or any combination thereof. The term “article ofmanufacture” as used herein refers to code or logic implemented inhardware or nontransitory computer readable media such as opticalstorage devices, and volatile or non-volatile memory devices ortransitory computer readable media such as signals, carrier waves, etc.Such hardware may include, but is not limited to, field programmablegate arrays (FPGAs), application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs),complex programmable logic devices (CPLDs), programmable logic arrays(PLAs), microprocessors, or other similar processing devices.

1. A method for detecting deformation in one or more parts during anadditive manufacturing process, comprising: receiving a first opticalimage of a first layer of build material corresponding to the one ormore parts before or after recoating; determining gray values for one ormore pixels in the first optical image; and detecting deformation in atleast one of the one or more parts based on at least one of the grayvalues in the first optical image compared to a threshold based on areference image of build material.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein thethreshold comprises one of a threshold gray value for a pixel or athreshold deviation from a distribution of gray values. 3.-5. (canceled)6. The method of claim 1, further comprising identifying one or morezones in the first optical image corresponding to at least a portion ofat least one of the one or more parts, wherein determining the grayvalues and detecting the deformation is performed only in the identifiedone or more zones.
 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the one or morezones correspond to an overhang surface.
 8. The method of claim 1,further comprising aborting a build of at least one of the one or moreparts based on detecting the deformation.
 9. (canceled)
 10. The methodof claim 1, further comprising: creating a first binary image indicativeof whether each of the one or more pixels satisfy the threshold; anddetecting the deformation based on the first binary image.
 11. Themethod of claim 1, further comprising receiving one or more additionaloptical images of one or more additional layers of the build materialcorresponding to the one or more parts before or after recoating; anddetermining gray values for one or more pixels in each of the one ormore additional optical images, wherein detecting the deformation isfurther based on gray values in the one or more additional opticalimages corresponding to the at least one gray value in the first opticalimage.
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the additional layers areadjacent layers.
 13. The method of claim 11, wherein the additionallayers are not adjacent layers.
 14. (canceled)
 15. The method of claim1, further comprising generating and displaying a visual representationof the deformation, the visual representation comprising at least one ofa false-color image, a graph, and a 3D model. 16.-19. (canceled)
 20. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the threshold comprises a threshold grayvalue for a pixel based on a multiple of a standard deviation from anaverage gray value of pixels in the reference image.
 21. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the first optical image is an optical image taken afterrecoating.
 22. The method of claim 1, wherein the first optical image isan optical image taken before recoating.
 23. The method of claim 11,further comprising: creating a first binary image indicative of whethereach of the one or more pixels satisfy the threshold; creating one ormore additional binary images corresponding to the one or moreadditional optical images indicative of whether each of the one or morepixels in each of the one or more additional optical images satisfy thethreshold; and detecting the deformation based on the first and the oneor more additional binary images.
 24. The method of claim 23, whereindetecting the deformation based on the first and the one or moreadditional binary images comprises determining for each plurality ofcorresponding pixels in the first and the one or more additional binaryimages a number of pixels for which a deformation was detected andcomparing the number with a boundary number.
 25. A computing device fordetecting deformation in one or more parts during an additivemanufacturing process, comprising: a memory; and a processor, the memoryand processor being configured to: receive a first optical image of afirst layer of build material corresponding to the one or more partsbefore or after recoating; determine gray values for one or more pixelsin the first optical image; and detect deformation in at least one ofthe one or more parts based on at least one of the gray values in thefirst optical image compared to a threshold based on a reference imageof build material. 26.-48. (canceled)
 49. A non-transitory computerreadable medium having instructions stored thereon that when executed bya computing device cause the computing device to perform a method fordetecting deformation in one or more parts during an additivemanufacturing process, the method comprising: receiving a first opticalimage of a first layer of build material corresponding to the one ormore parts before or after recoating; determining gray values for one ormore pixels in the first optical image; and detecting deformation in atleast one of the one or more parts based on at least one of the grayvalues in the first optical image compared to a threshold based on areference image of build material.
 50. The method of claim 11, whereinthe one or more pixels in the first optical image and in each of the oneor more additional optical images correspond to a pixel sequence acrossa stack of images.
 51. The method of claim 11, wherein the first opticalimage of at least a first layer of build material corresponds to the oneor more parts after recoating and the one or more additional opticalimages of the one or more additional layers of the build materialcorresponds to the one or more parts after recoating.
 52. The method ofclaim 51, wherein the deformation is warpage.